| Benefit-cost analysis | A decision-making tool used to evaluate whether a project, policy, or investment is worth doing by comparing its expected benefits to its expected costs. | Economic information - Market-based benefits of the environment e.g. provisioning services
- Non-market based benefits of the environment e.g. cultural services
| Value of ecosystem services - Market value method for values of fishery, timber, carbon
- Replacement cost, restoration cost or avoided damage cost to infrastructure from coastal inundation
- Observed revenue generated by the tourism industry
- Contingent valuation or choice experiment to estimate cultural values
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| Quotas | A fishing quota is a limit set on how much of a particular type of fish can be caught. Quotas can be measured in weight (like tons of fish) or number of fish, and they help balance environmental conservation with the economic needs of fishing communities. | - Size of fish stock
- Sustainable catch limit
- Total catch for subsistence fishing
- Market price of fish
| Total catch for subsistence fishing - Unit resource rent/Net factor of production
- Production function, cost function and profit function methods
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| Restrictions/Marine protected areas | A restriction is any rule or regulation that limits how, when, where, or what people can harvest in order to protect the marine ecosystems. A Marine Protected Area is a type of restriction. | - Size of fish stock
- Sustainable catch limit
- Total catch for subsistence fishing
- Market price of fish
| Total catch for subsistence fishing - Unit resource rent/Net factor of production
- Production function, cost function and profit function methods
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| Tourism tax | A general tax applied to tourists or tourism-related activities, charged by a government or local authority to help fund services and infrastructure related to tourism e.g. accommodation tax, cruise ship tax, airport arrival departure tax. | - Revenue needed to generate
- Visitor willingness to pay tax
- Visitor response to tax i.e. demand elasticity
- Benchmarking against similar destinations
- Economic impact on tourism sector
| Visitor willingness to pay for tax and response to tax - Contingent valuation
- Choice experiment
Economic impact on tourism sector - Demand elasticity
- Expected change in number of tourists
- Expected change in tourist spending
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| User fee | A direct charge that people pay to access or use a natural resource or environmental service e.g. park entry fee, camping permit, boat launch fee. | - Annual park budget
- Government funding
- Number of fee paying visitors
- Visitor willingness to pay for fee
- Visitor response to fee i.e. demand elasticity
- Benchmark with other countries
| Visitor willingness to pay for fee and response to fee - Contingent valuation
- Choice experiment
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| Congestion charges | A fee imposed on visitors entering or using certain high-traffic areas, usually during peak times, to reduce overcrowding and lessen environmental and social pressures e.g. national parks might raise fees or cap entries during busy seasons to avoid congestion. | - Average daily number of visitors
- Visitor willingness to pay for fewer people
- Visitor response to price i.e. demand elasticity
- Benchmark with other countries
| Visitor willingness to pay for fee and response to price - Contingent valuation
- Choice experiment
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| Economic incentives e.g. subsidies | Financial or policy-based tools used to influence people's behavior by rewarding certain actions (e.g. with subsidies) or discouraging others (e.g. fines). | - Environmental outcome desired by the government/country
| - Willingness to accept of end-users to stop damaging the environment
- Willingness to pay of beneficiaries for environmental conservation
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| Payment for ecosystem services (PES) | A financial incentive given to people or communities to protect, manage, or restore ecosystems that provide valuable benefits to society i.e. than the local community itself. | Ecosystem information - Ecosystem type and health/condition
- Ecological thresholds
- Ecosystem services provided:
- Provisioning e.g. fish stock, timber
- Regulating e.g. coastal protection, carbon sequestration
- Supporting services e.g. biodiversity, habit
- Cultural e.g. recreation, tourism
Economic information - Ecosystem services value
- Transaction cost to set up the PES scheme
- Expected revenue from PES
| Beneficiary’s willingness to pay for nature credits - Contingent valuation
- Choice experiment
Value of ecosystem services - Market value method for values of fishery, timber, carbon
- Replacement cost, restoration cost or avoided damage cost to infrastructure from coastal inundation
- Observed revenue generated by the tourism industry
- Contingent valuation or choice experiment to estimate cultural values
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| Nature repair markets (NPR) | A market or systems where people, companies, or organizations can buy and sell “credits” linked to restoring or protecting nature, like ecosystems, habitats, or biodiversity. | Ecosystem information - Ecosystem type and health/condition
- Restoration potential of the ecosystem
- Ecological metrics e.g. fish abundance
- Ecosystem services provided:
- Provisioning e.g. fish stock, timber
- Regulating e.g. coastal protection, carbon sequestration
- Supporting services e.g. biodiversity, habit
- Cultural e.g. recreation, tourism
Economic information - Ecosystem services value
- Transaction cost to set up the NPR
- Expected revenue from PES
| Beneficiary willingness to pay for conserving the ecosystem asset - Contingent valuation
- Choice experiment
Value of ecosystem services - Market value method for values of fishery, timber, carbon
- Replacement cost or avoided damage cost to infrastructure from coastal inundation
- Observed revenue generated by the tourism industry
- Contingent valuation or choice experiment to estimate cultural values
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| Buyback and buy-out schemes | A program where a government or organization purchases something back from individuals, businesses, or communities to voluntarily give up rights, assets, or activities, usually for social, environmental, or economic reasons. | - Government budget to invest in buy back program
- Stock of asset
- Sustainable harvesting limit of asset
- Value of asset to current end-user
- Provisioning e.g. fish stock, timber
- Regulating e.g. coastal protection, carbon sequestration
- Supporting services e.g. biodiversity, habit
- Cultural e.g. recreation, tourism
| Beneficiary willingness to pay for conserving the ecosystem asset - Contingent valuation
- Choice experiment
Value of ecosystem services to current end user - Market value method for values of fishery, timber, carbon
- Replacement cost, restoration cost or avoided damage cost to infrastructure from coastal inundation
- Observed revenue generated by the tourism industry
- Contingent valuation or choice experiment to estimate cultural values
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| Loss and damage payments | Financial support given to countries or communities that have suffered harm from climate change — especially when the damage is beyond what they can adapt to. | Potential tangible loss/cost - Infrastructure cost e.g. roads, homes, public buildings.
- Agriculture loss/Food security loss e.g. loss of cropland
- Fisheries decline i.e. from coral bleaching
- Economic output e.g. tourism revenue decline
- Relocation and resettlement costs
Potential intangible loss/cost - Loss of culture and identify
- Loss of heritage sites
- Loss of traditional knowledge
- Loss of social cohesion
- Loss of sovereignty
- Mental health impacts
| Infrastructure cost - Replacement cost of damaged infrastructure
- Payment to avoid infrastructure damage
- Hedonic pricing for decomposing house and land price
Agriculture loss and fisheries decline - Unit resource rent/Net factor of production
- Production function, cost function and profit function methods
- Restoration cost
Economic output e.g. tourism revenue decline - Travel cost
- Unit resource rent/Net factor of production from tourism
Relocation and resettlement costs - Cost of (new) land acquisition
- Housing construction cost
- Infrastructure costs e.g. building roads
- Public building costs e.g. schools
- Relocation logistics costs e.g. temporary shelter
- Cost of livelihood disruption e.g. loss of income
- Cost for employment support e.g. retraining
- Institutional costs e.g. legal frameworks, government intervention.
Intangible loss/cost - Averting behaviour i.e. willingness to pay to avoid undesirable outcome
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